See
Balfour
Declaration, letter prepared in March 1916 and issued in November 1917, during
World War I, by the British statesman Arthur James Balfour, then foreign
secretary in the cabinet of Prime Minister David Lloyd George. Specifically,
the letter expressed the British government's approval of Zionism with “the
establishment in
It has been
commonly accepted that the Balfour Declaration was a unilateral undertaking by
the British government. The immediate purpose was to win for the Allied cause
in World War I the support of Jews and others in the warring nations and in
neutral countries such as the
II. THE COVENANT AND THE UNITED STATES
In 1918, as
one of his Fourteen Points summarizing Allied aims in
Although
President Wilson was a member of the committee that drafted the covenant, it
was never ratified by the U.S. Senate because of Article X, which contained the
requirement that all members preserve the territorial independence of all other
members, even to joint action against aggression. During the next two decades,
American diplomats encouraged the league's activities and attended its meetings
unofficially, but the
III. LEAGUE STRUCTURE
The
machinery of the league consisted of an assembly, a council, and a secretariat.
Before World War II (1939-1945), the assembly convened regularly at
IV. WORLD INVOLVEMENT
The league was based on a new concept: collective security against the “criminal” threat of war. Unfortunately, the league rarely implemented its available resources, limited though they were, to achieve this goal.
One
important activity of the league was the disposition of certain territories
that had been colonies of
The league may be credited with certain social achievements. These include curbing international traffic in narcotics and prostitution, aiding refugees of World War I, and surveying and improving health and labor conditions around the world.
In the area
of preserving peace, the league had some minor successes, including settlement
of disputes between
Although
Finally,
the league was powerless to prevent the events in
In 1946 the league voted to effect its own dissolution, whereupon much of its property and organization were transferred to the UN.
V. LEGACY
Never truly
effective as a peacekeeping organization, the lasting importance of the
VI. MEMBERSHIP
The accompanying table lists the countries that were members of the international organization. Where no date is given, the country was an original member of the league. The year in parentheses is the year of admission to the league unless otherwise indicated.
The Arab League
The Arab
League declared war on the new state, and
1980: International Regional Organizations
Arab League.
This year,
as often in the past, the Arab League was primarily concerned with the
Arab-Israeli conflict and conflicts among its member states. It extended the
mandate of the Syrian troops in
Arab League, informal name of the League of Arab States, a voluntary association of independent countries whose peoples are mainly Arabic speaking. Its stated purposes are to strengthen ties among the member states, coordinate their policies, and promote their common interests.
II. MEMBERSHIP
The league
was founded in
III. STRUCTURE
The supreme organ of the Arab League is its council, made up of all the member states; each state has one vote. Unanimous council decisions are binding on all members. Majority decisions are binding only on those members who accepted them. The council convenes twice annually, in March and September. It convenes in special session upon the request of two member states whenever the need arises. The league appoints, by two-thirds majority, a secretary general, who is in charge of the administration and financial offices, called the secretariat general. The secretariat general is divided into several departments concerned with political, economic, social, and legal affairs. Ahmed Esmat Abdul Maguid was unanimously voted secretary general by the council in 1991. Other specialized agencies connected with the league include the Arab League Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization; and the Arab League Labor Organization.
IV. HISTORY
The
Egyptian government first proposed the Arab League in 1943.
V. ACTIVITIES
The Arab League is involved in political, economic, cultural, and social programs designed to promote the interests of member states. The league has served as a forum for member states to coordinate their policy positions and deliberate on matters of common concern, settling some Arab disputes and limiting conflicts such as the Lebanese civil wars of 1958. The Arab League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of almost all landmark documents promoting economic integration among member states, such as the creation of the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter, which set out the principles for economic activities of the league. It has played an important role in shaping school curricula, and preserving manuscripts and Arab cultural heritage. The league has launched literacy campaigns, and reproduced intellectual works, and translated modern technical terminology for the use of member states. It encourages measures against crime and drug abuse and deals with labor issues (particularly among the emigrant Arab workforce). The league has also fostered cultural exchanges between member states, encouraged youth and sports programs, helped to advance the role of women in Arab societies, and promoted child welfare activities.
1982:
As in
previous years, foreign policy and national security issues dominated the
Israeli scene in 1982. As the year began,
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
International Organization:
World Meteorological Organization (WMO), specialized agency of the United Nations, established in 1947 to coordinate, standardize, and improve world meteorological information. Successor to the International Meteorological Organization, which had coordinated weather-reporting services among its members after 1878, the WMO has 187 members, consisting of countries and territories that maintain meteorological services. The organization facilitates international cooperation in the establishment of station networks and centers to provide meteorological and hydrometeorological service and observations. It promotes the establishment of systems for the rapid exchange of weather data and the standardization of meteorological observations, and encourages research and training to further the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, agriculture, and other activities.
The
organizational structure of the WMO includes the policymaking body called the
World Meteorological Congress, which meets at least once every four years; the
executive committee, which carries out the resolutions of the congress,
initiates studies, and makes recommendations on matters requiring international
action; meteorological associations for six regions (Africa, Asia, South
America, North and Central America, Europe, and the Southwest Pacific); and
technical commissions composed of experts in such fields as climatology and
maritime meteorology. The secretariat, which is headed by a secretary general,
has its headquarters in
World Trade Organization (WTO), international body that promotes and enforces the provisions of trade laws and regulations. The World Trade Organization has the authority to administer and police new and existing free trade agreements, to oversee world trade practices, and to settle trade disputes among member states. The WTO was established in 1994 when the members of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), a treaty and international trade organization, signed a new trade pact. The WTO was created to replace GATT. All of the 128 nations that were contracting parties to the new GATT pact at the end of 1994 became members of the WTO upon ratifying the GATT pact. A number of other nations have joined the WTO since then.
The WTO
began operation on
The WTO is
based in
Since its creation, the WTO has attracted criticism from those concerned about free trade and economic globalization. Opponents of the WTO argue that the organization is too powerful because it can declare the laws and regulations of sovereign nations in violation of trade rules, in effect pressuring nations to change these laws. Critics also charge that WTO trade rules do not sufficiently protect workers’ rights, the environment, or human health. Some groups charge that the WTO lacks democratic accountability because its hearings on trade disputes are closed to the public and press. WTO officials have dismissed arguments that the organization is undemocratic, noting that its member nations, most of which are democracies, wrote the WTO rules and selected its leadership. WTO supporters argue that it plays a critical role in helping expand world trade and raise living standards around the world.
Criticism
of the WTO reached an apex in late 1999, when more than 30,000 protesters
disrupted a WTO summit in
International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), specialized technical agency of the United
Nations, created as a permanent body on
The agency has been instrumental in improving meteorological services, air traffic control, air-to-ground communications, search and rescue operations, and other measures for safe international flight. It also has done much to simplify customs and immigration procedures and public health regulations related to international air travel. The fight against airplane hijacking and other terrorist attacks and the effects of aircraft noise on the environment also have been of special concern to the ICAO.
The ICAO is composed of 180 member nations that meet once every three years at an assembly. Its executive body in the interim is a council consisting of representatives from 33 member nations who are elected by the assembly on the basis of their relative importance in international air transport and of geographical distribution. The ICAO has its own secretariat, headed by a secretary general appointed by the council, and several permanent technical committees. The agency headquarters is in Montréal.
International
Criminal Police Organization or Interpol, intergovernmental body established to
promote mutual cooperation between police authorities around the world and to
develop means of effectively preventing crime. Founded in
International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) organization that operates a system of satellites facilitating mobile communications on land, at sea, and in the air. INMARSAT launched its first satellites in 1979 to provide global communications for shipping. In the 1980s INMARSAT also began to offer aeronautic and land communications services.
INMARSAT’s
satellites each lie in a geostationary orbit 22,223 miles above one of the four
major ocean regions of the earth. Data transfer services that the satellites
provide include direct-dial telephone, telex, fax, and e-mail data links, along
with automatic position and status reporting for aircraft and land transport,
and distress and safety messaging and positioning. INMARSAT has 79 member
nations. Decision-making authority centers in the council, which includes
representatives of member nations with the largest investment share, and the
directorate, a permanent staff organization with headquarters in
In 1996 the
Government Accountability Office (GA0) of the
Deployment
and operation of communications satellites on a commercial basis began with the
founding of the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) in 1963. When the
International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) was formed
in 1964, COMSAT became the
A method for interconnecting many ground stations spread over great distances was demonstrated in 1993 with the launch of NASA's ACTS (Advanced Communications Technology Satellite). The satellite uses what is known as the hopping spot beam technique to combine the advantages of frequency reuse, spot beams, and TDMA. By concentrating the energy of the satellite's transmitted signal, ACTS can use ground stations that have smaller antennas and reduced power requirements.
The concept
of multiple spot beam communications was successfully demonstrated in 1991 with
the launch of Italsat, developed by the Italian Research Council. With six spot
beams operating at 30 GHz (uplink) and 20 GHz (downlink), the satellite
interconnects TDMA transmissions between ground stations in all the major
economic centers of
Laser beams can also be used to transmit signals between a satellite and the earth, but the rate of transmission is limited because of absorption and scattering by the atmosphere. Lasers operating in the blue-green wavelength, which penetrates water, have been used for communication between satellites and submarines.
The latest development in satellites is the use of networks of small satellites in low earth orbit (2,000 km (1,200 mi) or less) to provide global telephone communication. The Iridium system uses 66 satellites in low earth orbit, while other groups have or are developing similar systems. Special telephones that communicate with these satellites allow users to access the regular telephone network and place calls from anywhere on the globe. Anticipated customers of these systems include international business travelers and people living or working in remote areas.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
United Nations
I INTRODUCTION
United Nations (UN), international organization of countries created to promote world peace and cooperation. The UN was founded after World War II ended in 1945. Its mission is to maintain world peace, develop good relations between countries, promote cooperation in solving the world’s problems, and encourage respect for human rights.
The UN is an organization of countries that agree to cooperate with one another. It brings together countries that are rich and poor, large and small, and have different social and political systems. Member nations pledge to settle their disputes peacefully, to refrain from using force or the threat of force against other countries, and to refuse help to any country that opposes UN actions.
UN membership is open to any country willing to further the UN mission and abide by its rules. Each country, no matter how large or small, has an equal voice and vote. Each country is also expected to pay dues to support the UN. As of 2007 the UN had 192 members, including nearly every country in the world.
The UN’s influence in world affairs has fluctuated over the years, but the organization gained new prominence beginning in the 1990s. It was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2001. Still, the UN faces constant challenges. It must continually secure the cooperation of its member nations because the organization has little independent power or authority. But getting that support is not always easy. Many nations are reluctant to defer their own authority and follow the dictates of the UN.
II CREATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS
The UN is the result of a long history of efforts to promote international cooperation. In the late 18th century, German philosopher Immanuel Kant proposed a federation or “league” of the world’s nations. Kant believed that such a federation would allow countries to unite and punish any nation that committed an act of aggression. This type of union by nations to protect each other against an aggressor is sometimes referred to as collective security. Kant also felt that the federation would protect the rights of small nations that often become pawns in power struggles between larger countries.
Kant’s idea
came to life after World War I (1914-1918). Horrified by the devastation of the
war, countries were inspired to come together and work toward peace. They
formed a new organization, the
Despite
this failure, the idea of a league did not die. The first commitment to create
a new organization came in 1941, when
The four
countries met again in early 1945 at a summit in
Like the
Another
major strength of the UN, unlike the earlier
III STRUCTURE OF THE UNITED NATIONS
The UN’s charter established six distinct bodies that serve different functions: (1) the General Assembly, (2) the Security Council, (3) the Secretariat, (4) the Economic and Social Council, (5) the International Court of Justice, and (6) the Trusteeship Council.
A General Assembly
The General Assembly is made up of all 192 member countries, each with one vote. It undertakes all major discussions and decisions about UN actions. It is like a global town hall, providing a powerful medium for countries to put forward their ideas and debate issues. The Assembly can discuss and make recommendations on any issue covered by the UN’s charter. However, the recommendations are not binding and the Assembly has no authority to enforce them. Members decide routine matters with a simple majority vote. Important decisions require a two-thirds majority.
The General Assembly meets annually in regular sessions that generally run from mid-September to mid-December. Recently the General Assembly has been meeting year round. It also convenes for special sessions every few years on specific topics, such as economic cooperation or disarmament. In addition, the Assembly can meet in emergency session to deal with an immediate threat to international peace. At the beginning of each regular session, Assembly members elect a president to preside over the assembly. The Assembly sessions, like most UN deliberations, are simultaneously translated into many languages so that delegates from around the world can understand any speaker.
The General Assembly has the power to admit new members to the UN. It approves the budget for UN programs and operations. The Assembly can establish agencies and programs to carry out its recommendations. It elects members to serve on certain agencies and programs, and it coordinates those programs through various committees.
B Security Council
The Security Council is the most powerful body in the UN. It is responsible for maintaining international peace, and for restoring peace when conflicts arise. Its decisions are binding on all UN members and have the force of international law. The Security Council has the power to define what is a threat to security, to determine how the UN should respond, and to enforce its decisions by ordering UN members to take certain actions. For example, the Council may impose economic sanctions, such as halting trade with a country it considers an aggressor.
The Council convenes any time there is a threat to peace. A representative from each member country who sits on the Council must be available at all times so that the Council can meet at a moment’s notice. The Security Council also frequently meets at the request of a UN member—often a nation with a grievance about another nation’s actions.
The
Security Council has 15 members, 5 of which hold permanent seats. The General
Assembly elects the other 10 members for rotating two-year terms. The 5
permanent members—the
Decisions
of the Council require nine votes. But any one of the permanent members can
veto an important decision. This authority is known as the veto right of the
great powers. As a result, the Council is effective only when its permanent
members can reach a consensus. This created problems during the Cold War, the
post-1945 struggle between the
The Council has a variety of ways it can try to resolve conflicts between countries. Usually the Council’s first step is to encourage the countries to settle their disagreements without violence. The Council can mediate a dispute or recommend guidelines for a settlement. It can send peacekeeping troops into a distressed area. If war breaks out, the Council can call for a ceasefire. It can enforce its decisions by imposing economic sanctions on a country, or by authorizing joint military action.
In recent
years, there has been growing controversy over which countries should have permanent
seats on the Council. Some nations believe that other countries beside the
original five should be included. For example,
C Secretariat
The Secretariat is the UN’s executive branch. It oversees the administration of the UN’s programs and policies and carries out day-to-day operations. This branch is headed by the secretary general, who acts as the UN’s spokesperson.
C1 Secretariat Staff
The UN’s
staff includes administrators, experts on technical issues such as
environmental protection, and economic advisors working on various programs and
projects in the member countries. These workers have a variety of
responsibilities, such as overseeing the operations of peacekeeping missions,
preparing studies on world issues, organizing international conferences,
surveying economic and social trends, and providing translations of speeches.
They perform the day-to-day work necessary for basic UN operations. The largest
concentration of staff outside
One purpose of the Secretariat is to develop an international civil service of diplomats and bureaucrats whose loyalties are not tied to any one country. The staff answers only to the UN and takes an oath not to obey any outside authority. The UN charter calls on its members to respect the independence and international character of the staff. However, the UN has had mixed success following through on this ideal. The secretary general is generally seen as an independent diplomat. But member nations still compete to place their citizens in control of staffs that administer important UN programs.
In the
early 1990s the UN bureaucracy came under increasing criticism for inefficiency
and even corruption. Much of this criticism came from the
C2 Secretary General
The
secretary general is a powerful public figure who oversees the daily operations
of the UN and plays a major role in setting the organization’s agenda in
international security affairs. The secretary general can bring to the Security
Council any matter that might threaten world peace. The secretary general has
the authority to serve as a neutral mediator in international conflicts and to
bring hostile parties together to negotiate. The secretary general’s personal
attention to a problem can often help bring about a resolution. For example, in
the 1990s Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali personally mediated conflicts
in
The secretary general is formally chosen by the General Assembly. But the secretary general must first be nominated by the Security Council and win the consent of all five of its permanent members. The secretary general serves a five-year term, which may be renewed. The Security Council can nominate a candidate from any country, but it is an unwritten tradition that the position rotates geographically, with a secretary general chosen from a new region after every two terms. In 1997 the General Assembly created the post of deputy secretary general to assist in the management of the Secretariat. The secretary general appoints the deputy secretary general.
The secretary general, like the rest of the UN staff, is supposed to be independent. In reality, the secretary general must rely on member countries, especially the five permanent Security Council members, to get anything done. As a result, the secretary general often struggles with the Security Council over what direction the UN should take. Since the Security Council chooses the secretary general, there is a limit on how independent the position can be.
Kofi Annan
of
Annan’s
immediate predecessor, Boutros Boutros-Ghali of
Secretaries general have come from various regions of the world, but it is an unwritten rule that they never should come from one of the most powerful countries. This tradition is a response to concerns that a secretary general selected from such a country would not be perceived by other nations as objective or neutral. There is also a fear that such a selection would give the world’s most influential nations that much more power. Past secretaries general include Trygve Lie of Norway, who served from 1946 to 1953; Dag Hammarskj?ld of Sweden, 1953 to 1961; U Thant of Burma (now Myanmar), 1961 through 1971; Kurt Waldheim of Austria, 1972 to 1982; and Javier Pérez de Cuéllar of Peru, 1982 through 1991. No woman has yet served in this position.
D Economic and Social Council
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) works under the authority of the General Assembly to coordinate the economic and social work of the UN. ECOSOC has 54 member countries elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. ECOSOC coordinates studies and recommends actions on international topics such as medicine, education, economics, and social needs. It promotes higher living standards, full employment, respect for human rights, and economic and social progress. It oversees the work of a large number of UN programs and agencies.
ECOSOC operates mainly through various standing committees, functional commissions, and regional commissions. There are five regional commissions that look at how the UN’s programs in a particular region are working together. There are ten functional commissions that deal with topics such as population growth, narcotics trafficking, human rights, and the status of women. Other committees work on topics relevant to several UN programs, such as crime prevention, public finance, natural resources, science and technology, and geographical names.
ECOSOC coordinates the work of many specialized agencies that provide a variety of social, economic, and related services. The agencies operate independently but work with other programs in the UN. Those agencies include the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund; the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the International Labor Organization (ILO), and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). ECOSOC also works closely with the private sector and with more than 2,000 nongovernmental organizations.
E International Court of Justice
The
International Court of Justice, also known as the
F Trusteeship Council
The
Trusteeship Council was established to oversee the transition of a handful of
colonies to independence. The last of those colonies, the
IV MEMBERSHIP IN THE UN
The UN
started in 1945 with 51 founding members—including the 50 countries that had
attended the
New members are admitted to the UN on the recommendation of the Security Council, if approved by a two-thirds vote of the General Assembly. Membership is open to any country that supports the UN’s mission and is willing to follow the rules and responsibilities specified in the charter.
In its
early years, Western countries dominated the UN and the General Assembly
regularly sided with the
The balance
of power began to change in the 1950s and 1960s, as colonies in
Another
change in UN membership involved representation for
V UN FUNDING
The UN is
funded by dues paid by each of its members. Each country’s dues are based upon
its wealth and ability to pay. The UN also requires countries to make financial
contributions to its peacekeeping efforts. In addition, many countries make
voluntary contributions to support various UN programs. The
The UN cannot force member nations to pay their dues. Many nations have failed to pay their full dues and have cut their voluntary contributions, causing the organization to fall into considerable debt.
The
financial crisis began in the 1980s when countries started falling behind in
their payments. Yet as financial support declined, the UN’s expenses grew. In
1996 the UN came perilously close to bankruptcy. After Kofi Annan became UN
secretary general in 1997, he pushed through reforms to consolidate some major
UN offices, in part to encourage the
In 2000 the
General Assembly responded to these terms by overhauling its system of
financing. It set a ceiling of 22 percent as the maximum amount any country
would pay toward the administrative budget. It also replaced its ad hoc system
of funding peacekeeping operations with a sliding scale of dues based on a
country’s per capita income. As a result, the
The UN also receives money from private citizens. Individuals may donate to various UN programs, such as the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Food Program (WFP). In 1997 American business executive Ted Turner pledged $1 billion to UN programs, the largest single gift to the UN in its history.
VI FUNCTIONS OF THE UN
The UN today has the same basic purpose and structure as it did when it was founded in 1945. Its primary purpose—and greatest benefit to its members—is to maintain world peace. That, in turn, helps countries to develop and prosper, thereby improving the lives of their citizens. In addition to that primary mission, the UN serves its member countries in a variety of other ways. The UN provides a forum for countries to promote their views and settle conflicts without violence. It allows countries to cooperate to solve world problems, such as poverty, disease, and threats to the environment. It serves as a symbol of international order and global identity. It works to address economic and social problems in developing countries, with the idea that such problems create sources of conflict that can lead to war. The UN helps coordinate the work of hundreds of agencies and programs, both within its own organization and outside it. It also collects and publishes global statistics.
A Maintenance of International Peace and Security
The UN has three primary ways to maintain international peace and security. All directly involve the Security Council. Under chapter 6 of the UN charter, the UN can assist in the peaceful resolution of international disputes. This authority has evolved into the use of UN authorized peacekeeping forces. Under chapter 7 of the UN charter, the UN can authorize military action to enforce its resolutions. Finally, the UN can serve as a forum for international deliberations on long-term solutions to pressing security issues, such as arms control and terrorism.
A1 Peacekeeping
Peacekeeping is the nonaggressive use of military force to help nations in conflict reach a settlement. The UN charter does not mention peacekeeping forces, although chapter 6 of the charter does establish guidelines for peaceful resolution of international conflicts.
The UN’s
first peacekeeping effort took place in the
Today, the UN’s peacekeeping forces play a neutral role, working to calm regional conflicts in several ways. They can go into an area of conflict as observers, making sure agreements reached between opposing sides are being followed. They can provide a buffer between warring parties by physically interposing themselves in the middle. They can negotiate with military officers on both sides, providing a channel of communication. They can also monitor ceasefires, supervise elections, and provide humanitarian aid.
Peacekeepers are lightly armed. They travel in armored vehicles with automatic rifles, but lack artillery, tanks, or other heavy weapons. Their work can be hazardous, especially if one of the warring sides doubts their neutrality. They are often caught in the middle when ceasefires collapse and they sometimes have been deliberately attacked. By 2007 more than 2,300 peacekeepers had died in the line of duty.
The Security Council grants authority for peacekeeping missions, usually for several months, although the Council can reauthorize missions for many years. The UN does not have its own army, so the Security Council borrows forces for each mission from the military and police personnel of member countries. The Security Council also chooses a single commander, and the forces operate under UN command. The forces operate only if the parties in conflict agree to their presence. Thus, the success of a peacekeeping mission depends upon the cooperation of the opposing parties.
Peacekeeping forces are funded by special fees paid by UN members. The General Assembly must approve the funds. Today, lack of funds is the single greatest constraint in the use of peacekeeping forces. As peacekeeping operations have expanded, they have required more and more money.
UN
peacekeepers won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988 in recognition of their successes.
In the early 21st century the UN had nearly 90,000 troops from 112 countries in
almost 20 separate peacekeeping missions in regions of the world including
See also United Nations Peacekeeping Forces.
A2 Peace Enforcement
In addition to peacekeeping missions, the UN can also authorize peace enforcement operations. Unlike peacekeeping missions, which help willing parties maintain an existing peace agreement, peace enforcement operations seek to repel international aggression, using military force if necessary. Under chapter 7 of the UN charter, the Security Council may authorize member countries to take military action in response to international breaches of the peace. The UN’s founders initially envisioned chapter 7 as the teeth in the UN charter.
An early
example of the UN’s role in peace enforcement came in 1950, when
The UN
again authorized a peace enforcement mission in 1990, when
A3 Arms Control
The UN
charter authorizes the Security Council to plan for worldwide disarmament and
arms control. To help achieve those goals, the UN has sponsored arms control
negotiations in
Instead,
during the Cold War, the most important arms control agreements were reached by
countries negotiating directly with each other, particularly by the
After the
1991 Persian Gulf War, UN agencies assumed a lead role in enforcing a Security
Council resolution to disarm
B. Economic and Social Development
The second major function of the UN is to promote economic and social development worldwide. The UN engages in a myriad of activities and sponsors a large number of agencies to meet this goal. The UN’s Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) oversees these activities.
1. Economic Development
The UN operates under the principle that promoting economic and social development will help bring about lasting world peace. The organization’s charter calls on the UN to promote full employment for all, higher standards of living, and economic and social progress. As a result, the UN devotes a major proportion of its staff and budget to economic development programs worldwide. The General Assembly has recognized the need to restructure international economic relations to help developing countries and has recommended a series of steps aimed at reducing the gap between wealthy and poor countries.
The UN operates many programs and special agencies to promote economic development and provide assistance and technical expertise to developing countries. One of those programs is the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). Many developing nations rely on income from trade to support their economic development efforts at home and are especially vulnerable to price fluctuations on international markets and other trade problems. UNCTAD was founded in the 1960s to help negotiate international trade agreements that stabilize prices and promote trade with developing countries. During the 1970s the General Assembly included those goals in its call for a New International Economic Order to promote growth in developing countries. But developing countries have little power in the international economy, and as a result UNCTAD has been largely ineffective in advancing their interests in international trade.
Other efforts include the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), which coordinates all UN efforts in developing nations. It is funded through voluntary contributions and has thousands of projects operating around the world. UNDP is the world’s largest international agency providing development assistance on technical issues. Two related agencies are the United Nations Industrial Development Organization and the United Nations Institute for Training and Research.
UN programs offer several advantages in promoting economic development. Governments of developing nations see the UN as a friend of the developing world, not as an outsider threatening their authority or as a reminder of colonial rule. Many UN experts and volunteers are themselves from other developing countries. UN workers who come from the developing world may be more sensitive to local conditions and to the pitfalls of development assistance than their counterparts from more wealthy countries. The UN can also organize its assistance on an international scale, avoiding duplication of efforts. Some issues, such as prevention and treatment of major diseases and environmental protection, particularly benefit from the UN’s international approach.
A major disadvantage of the UN development programs is that their funding largely depends on voluntary contributions from wealthy nations. Each program has to solicit contributions to carry on its activities, and contributions can be abruptly cut off if the program displeases a donor government. In addition, programs sometimes lack the efficiency and resources that governments and businesses in wealthy countries take for granted. This has given the programs a reputation for being inefficient and bureaucratic.
The UN also helps finance development through the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, better known as the World Bank. The World Bank was created in 1944 to help developing nations get funding for projects. The bank grants loans to member countries to finance specific projects and this in turn encourages foreign investing. A related agency, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), was created at the same time to promote international cooperation on monetary issues. It encourages a stable, orderly pattern of monetary exchange rates between nations.
2. Health
Infant
Vaccinations in
At a
Rwandan health center, infants receive vaccinations against infectious
diseases. The World Health Organization, an agency of the United Nations, works
to provide basic vaccinations to underserved populations in
The UN has recognized that adequate health and control of disease are essential to economic and social development. The World Health Organization (WHO) is the leading UN agency to address global health concerns. Its goal is to improve the health of all people, and it does this through a number of global health programs. WHO epidemiologists help track outbreaks of new diseases and epidemics. For example, WHO was instrumental in diagnosing and containing the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003. WHO also helps deliver basic immunizations to underserved populations. One of the greatest accomplishments of the WHO was the eradication of smallpox, a viral disease that once devastated humans around the globe.
The UN has
also taken action to combat the worldwide epidemic of acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS). In 1995 it established the Joint United Nations Program on
HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) to coordinate the international response to the disease. In
2000, the
3. Environment
The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) encourages and coordinates sound environmental practices throughout the world. It grapples with ways to approach environmental problems on an international level, provides expertise to member countries, monitors environmental conditions worldwide, develops environmental standards, and recommends alternative energy sources.
UNEP’s work
is guided by principles adopted at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and
Development, also known as the Earth Summit. The summit, which took place in
The first
UN environment conference took place in
The 1992 Earth Summit was larger and more ambitious than its predecessors. Its major theme was sustainable economic development, meaning development that does not use up or destroy so many of the world’s natural resources that it cannot be sustained over time. The meeting produced an overall plan, called Agenda 21, in which large developing countries promised to develop their industries with an eye toward protecting the environment. Industrialized countries pledged to help them do that. The Earth Summit also produced major treaties on biodiversity and global warming, although the latter treaty lacked enforcement provisions.
In 2002,
UNEP sponsored the World Summit on Sustainable Development in
4. Other Economic and Social Programs
The UN operates a host of other economic and social programs. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) addresses the needs of children worldwide. The International Labor Organization (ILO) advocates for workers’ rights. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) helps countries improve education and literacy, promotes ethics in science, and works to preserve cultural diversity. The United Nations Population Fund promotes family planning, safe pregnancies and childbirths, and reproductive health in developing countries, and it helps countries formulate population policies. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime helps countries fight illicit drugs, crime, and terrorism. The UN has an organization, commission, or specialized agency to address nearly every social issue on the global agenda.
C. Human Rights
One of the UN’s major goals under its charter is to promote and encourage respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all people, regardless of race, sex, language, or religion. But once again, the UN’s effectiveness in promoting its agenda is limited by its lack of authority over member nations.
After the
atrocities committed by the Germans in the Holocaust, the slaughter of Jews
that occurred during World War II, the UN adopted a Universal Declaration of
Human Rights. The declaration was adopted on
Until 2006 the UN operated a Commission on Human Rights. In 2006 this commission was replaced with a Human Rights Council. The work of the previous commission had been largely discredited because countries known to violate human rights had become members. As members they often blocked the commission from censuring them for their human rights abuses. The reformed Human Rights Council was created to address this problem. The UN General Assembly now elects individual countries to the council by majority vote. Previously, membership on the council was allocated by region. The council also reviews the human rights records of member countries, and systematic violators of human rights can be suspended from the council by a two-thirds vote of the General Assembly. The council also meets more frequently than the commission did. The council meets three times a year for a total of ten weeks, compared with the commission’s single session of six weeks each year. The council has the ability to meet quickly to address a human rights emergency. The purpose of the council is to monitor human rights abuses in countries and address complaints about human rights violations.
The UN also operates the office of High Commissioner for Human Rights. The General Assembly created this position in 1993. The commissioner oversees all the UN’s human rights programs, works to prevent human rights violations, and investigates human rights abuses. The commissioner also has the power to publicize abuses taking place in any country, but does not have the authority to stop them. However, most publicity about human rights abuses does not come from the UN but from rival countries or from nongovernmental organizations, such as Amnesty International.
The UN has
also drawn up four international conventions (treaties) on human rights, which
are legally binding but hard to enforce. The conventions address the problems
of genocide, racial discrimination, civil and political rights, and economic
and social rights. The treaties have been ratified by only about half of the
world’s nations. The
During the
Cold War, Western countries continually criticized nations under Soviet rule
for their lack of respect for human rights, such as freedom of expression and
fair elections. But the UN played a small role in these arguments because of
the
One of the
UN’s most visible recent activities regarding human rights has been the
creation of special war crimes tribunals to prosecute those responsible for
atrocities committed during the civil wars in the former
D. Humanitarian Assistance
Food Aid
Distribution in
Residents
of a remote mountain village in northern
Since the end of the Cold War the UN has become increasingly involved in providing humanitarian assistance to people in need. All too frequently, the humanitarian crises to which the UN responds are caused by international conflict. The UN can also respond to humanitarian crises caused by natural disasters such as floods or hurricanes. Conflicts and wars may create refugee crises, as when people flee their homes for fear of persecution or harm. Agencies such as the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the World Food Program (WFP) can mobilize international assistance in a short time frame to respond to a crisis.
Noodle
Workers cut
and dry fresh noodles in a factory in
Increasingly,
UN agencies work with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) that provide relief
and assistance, as well as with the aid agencies of governments, to coordinate
a global response to humanitarian crises. For example, in 1999 members of the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) began to bomb the
E. Development of International Law
The UN
plays an important role in the development of international law. Formally, the
UN can produce international law in two ways. Security Council resolutions are
binding on all UN members and have the force of international law. Decisions by
the
Informally, the UN also has a large role in the development of international law. The standing committees of the General Assembly and the standing UN commissions and functional agencies routinely hold global conferences on topics such as arms control, the environment, and human rights. These large diplomatic sessions often produce the ideas and early momentum for international treaties that are not formally part of the UN system but owe their existence to UN discussion of an issue. Treaties such as the 1968 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, the 1997 Ky?to Protocol on greenhouse gases, and the 1998 Rome Statute approving the International Criminal Court were the topic of UN deliberations before they became treaties in their own right.
Two UN commissions are specifically charged with developing and codifying international law. The UN’s International Law Commission, created in 1947, studies important questions of international law and prepares drafts of treaties codifying these topics. Over the years, topics have included the law of the sea, diplomatic relations and immunity, treaties between nations, shared natural resources, nationality and statelessness, relations between nations and international organizations, and many other issues. The UN’s Commission on International Trade Law, created in 1966, drafts texts on laws concerning international commerce and economic development. These commissions submit their texts and recommendations to the General Assembly, which may then call an international diplomatic conference to incorporate the texts into a treaty.
F. Decolonization
At the end of World War II (1939-1945), the great powers held vast colonial empires in the developing world. One goal of the UN charter was decolonization—ending the practice of colonialism. The Trusteeship Council was established as the UN organ to aid in the decolonization process. As colonies gained their independence in the mid-20th century, one of their first steps was to join the UN. This act announced their arrival on the international stage as a full-fledged member of the international community. The Trusteeship Council served as a transitional authority to help a country make the transition from colony to independent nation. In 1994 the last colony gained its independence and the Trusteeship Council suspended its operations.
VII. INFLUENCE AND EFFECTIVENESS
The UN’s influence on international politics is significant and cannot be ignored. The main goal of the UN’s founders was to avoid a third world war, and in that respect, the organization has succeeded. The UN has peacefully resolved numerous international disputes since its founding and has established a set of rules for the use of force in the contemporary world. Although these rules are not always followed, the UN has nevertheless established itself as a significant player on the world stage.
The UN has
been involved in every major war and international crisis since World War II in
one fashion or another. It authorized the international coalitions that fought
the Korean War (1950-1953) and the Persian Gulf War of 1991. A UN resolution
created the state of
Since the
end of the Cold War, the UN has asserted the right of the Security Council to
be the soul body with the power to declare international uses of military force
legitimate. However, this claimed authority does not always work. In some
cases, the UN may fail to muster support for a force to intervene in a violent
conflict. For example, lacking support for intervention from UN member nations,
the UN failed to stop the 1994 genocide in
Certain tensions constrain the UN’s influence and effectiveness. The first is the tension between the UN’s role as an autonomous actor and its role as a collection of nations. The UN can call on member nations for action, but it has a hard time enforcing its own resolutions because it is also committed to the principle of sovereignty, which asserts each country’s right to set its own policies. The UN requires member nations to contribute to its peacekeeping operations and relief missions, but when no nation wants to contribute, it is an impotent body. On the one hand, the UN has a mandate to work on its own to promote the values of its charter. On the other hand, the UN Charter is a treaty among nations. Thus, the UN cannot do anything without the expressed approval of its members, particularly the great powers. The UN’s authority comes from the countries that join the organization, sign the charter, and provide the UN with the resources it needs to accomplish its mission.
The UN also faces the tension of the gap between the developed and developing world. The developing world represents the majority of the UN’s members, both in terms of number of countries and global population. The developed world, meanwhile, controls the majority of financial and military resources available to the UN. Developing countries want the chance to build their societies, but to do this they need help from the richer, already developed countries, many of which are reluctant to spend their resources on others. The struggle to set priorities and allocate scarce resources is a constant tension within the UN.
There is a constant tension between the International Law of the UN Charter and the diplomacy that the member nations conduct on a daily basis. The UN Charter only has value to the extent that members follow its provisions. Nations can ignore elements of the charter and can also work outside the charter. Peacekeeping, for example, is never mentioned in the Charter but has become a key UN diplomatic function. Trying to maintain the integrity of international law while still playing effective diplomacy that satisfies the needs of the member countries consumes much of the day-to-day business of the UN.
Finally, a
longstanding tension exists between the UN and the